A psychoactive drug, psychopharmaceutical or psychotropic is a chemical substance In chemistry, a chemical substance is a material with a specific chemical composition that crosses the blood-brain barrier The blood-brain barrier is a separation of circulating blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the central nervous system (CNS). It occurs along all capillaries and consists of tight junctions around the capillaries that don't exist in normal circulation. Endothelial cells restrict the diffusion of microscopic objects (e.g. bacteria) and large or and acts primarily upon the central nervous system The central nervous system is the part of the nervous system that coordinates the activity of all parts of the bodies of bilaterian animals—that is, all multicellular animals except sponges and radially symmetric animals such as jellyfish. It contains the majority of the nervous system and consists of the brain and the spinal cord, as well as where it alters brain The brain is the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate, and most invertebrate, animals. Some primitive animals such as jellyfish and starfish have a decentralized nervous system without a brain, while sponges lack any nervous system at all. In vertebrates, the brain is located in the head, protected by the skull and close to the primary function, resulting in changes in perception In philosophy, psychology, and cognitive science, perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory information. The word "perception" comes from the Latin words perceptio, percipio, and means "receiving, collecting, action of taking possession, apprehension with the mind or senses.", mood A mood is a relatively long lasting emotional state. Moods differ from simple emotions in that they are less specific, less intense, and less likely to be triggered by a particular stimulus or event, consciousness Consciousness is variously defined as subjective experience, awareness, the ability to experience "feeling", wakefulness, or the executive control system of the mind. It is an umbrella term that may refer to a variety of mental phenomena. Although humans realize what everyday experiences are, consciousness refuses to be defined,, cognition Cognition is the scientific term for "the process of thought." Usage of the term varies in different disciplines; for example in psychology and cognitive science, it usually refers to an information processing view of an individual's psychological functions. Other interpretations of the meaning of cognition link it to the development of, and behavior Behavior, or behaviour , refers to the actions of a system or organism , usually in relation to its environment, which includes the other systems or organisms around as well as the physical environment. It is the response of the system or organism to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or.[1] These drugs may be used recreationally Recreational drug use is the use of a psychoactive substance with the intention of creating or enhancing recreational experience. Such use is controversial, however, often being considered to be also drug abuse, and it is often illegal. Also, it may overlap with other uses, such as medicinal , performance enhancement, and entheogenic (spiritual), to purposefully alter one's consciousness Consciousness is variously defined as subjective experience, awareness, the ability to experience "feeling", wakefulness, or the executive control system of the mind. It is an umbrella term that may refer to a variety of mental phenomena. Although humans realize what everyday experiences are, consciousness refuses to be defined,, as entheogens An entheogen , in the strict sense, is a psychoactive substance used in a religious, shamanic or spiritual context. Historically, entheogens were mostly derived from plant sources and have been used in a variety of traditional religious contexts. Most entheogens do not produce drug dependency. With the advent of organic chemistry, there now exist for ritual or spiritual purposes, as a tool for studying or augmenting the mind, or therapeutically as medication A pharmaceutical drug, also referred to as medicine, medication or medicament, can be loosely defined as any chemical substance intended for use in the medical diagnosis, cure, treatment, or prevention of disease.
Because psychoactive substances bring about subjective changes in consciousness and mood that the user may find pleasant (e.g. euphoria) or advantageous (e.g. increased alertness), many psychoactive substances are abused Substance abuse, also known as drug abuse, refers to a maladaptive pattern of use of a substance that is not considered dependent. The term "drug abuse" does not exclude dependency, but is otherwise used in a similar manner in nonmedical contexts. The terms have a huge range of definitions related to taking a psychoactive drug or, that is, used excessively, despite risks or negative consequences. With sustained use of some substances, physical dependence Physical dependence refers to a state resulting from chronic use of a drug that has produced tolerance and where negative physical symptoms of withdrawal result from abrupt discontinuation or dosage reduction. Physical dependence can develop from low-dose therapeutic use of certain medications as well as misuse of recreational drugs such as may develop, making the cycle of abuse even more difficult to interrupt. Drug rehabilitation Drug rehabilitation is a term for the processes of medical and/or psychotherapeutic treatment, for dependency on psychoactive substances such as alcohol, prescription drugs, and so-called street drugs such as cocaine, heroin or amphetamines. The general intent is to enable the patient to cease substance abuse, in order to avoid the psychological, aims to break this cycle of dependency, through a combination of psychotherapy Psychotherapy, or personal counseling with a psychotherapist, is an intentional interpersonal relationship used by trained psychotherapists to aid a client or patient in problems of living, support groups and even other psychoactive substances.
In part because of this potential for abuse and dependency, the ethics of drug use are the subject of a continuing philosophical debate. Many governments worldwide have placed restrictions on drug production and sales in an attempt to decrease drug abuse. Ethical concerns Neuroethics is the ethics of neuroscience, or the neuroscience of ethics have also been raised about over-use of these drugs clinically, and about their marketing by manufacturers.
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History
Drug use is a practice that dates to prehistoric Prehistory is a term used to describe the period before recorded history. Paul Tournal originally coined the term Pré-historique in describing the finds he had made in the caves of southern France.[citation needed] It came into use in France in the 1830s to describe the time before writing, and the word "prehistoric" was introduced into times. There is archaeological evidence of the use of psychoactive substances dating back at least 10,000 years, and historical evidence of cultural use over the past 5,000 years.[2] While medicinal use seems to have played a very large role, it has been suggested that the urge to alter one's consciousness is as primary as the drive to satiate thirst, hunger or sexual desire.[3] The long history of drug use and even children's desire for spinning, swinging, or sliding indicates that the drive to alter one's state of mind is universal.[4]
This relationship is not limited to humans. A number of animals consume different psychoactive plants, animals, berries and even fermented fruit, becoming intoxicated, such as cats after consuming catnip Nepeta is a genus of about 250 species of flowering plants in the family Lamiaceae. The members of this group are known as catnip or catmint because of their effect on cats—nepeta pleasantly stimulates cats' pheromonic receptors, typically resulting in temporary euphoria[citation needed]. Catmints are also used in herbal medicine for their mild. Traditional legends of sacred plants often contain references to animals that introduced humankind to their use.[5] Biology suggests an evolutionary connection between psychoactive plants and animals, as to why these chemicals and their receptors exist within the nervous system.[6]
During the 20th century, many governments across the world initially responded to the use of recreational drugs by banning them and making their use, supply or trade a criminal offense. A notable example of this is the Prohibition Prohibition of alcohol, often referred to simply as prohibition, is a sumptuary law which restricts or prohibits the manufacture, transportation, import, export, and sale of alcohol and alcoholic beverages. The term can also apply to the periods in the histories of the countries during which the prohibition of alcohol was enforced. Use of the term era in the United States, where alcohol was made illegal for 13 years. However, many governments have concluded that illicit drug use cannot be sufficiently stopped through criminalization.[citation needed] In some countries, there has been a move toward harm reduction by health services, where the use of illicit drugs is neither condoned nor promoted, but services and support are provided to ensure users have adequate factual information readily available, and that the negative effects of their use be minimized.[citation needed]
Uses
AspirinPsychoactive substances are used by humans for a number of different purposes. These uses vary widely between cultures. Some substances may have controlled or illegal uses while others may have shamanic purposes, and still others are used medicinally. Other examples would be social drinking or sleep aids. Caffeine Caffeine is a bitter, white crystalline xanthine alkaloid that is a psychoactive stimulant drug. Caffeine was discovered by a German chemist, Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge, in 1820. He coined the term kaffein, a chemical compound in coffee (the German word for which is Kaffee), which in English became caffeine (and changed to Koffein in German) is the world's most widely consumed psychoactive substance, but unlike many others, it is legal and unregulated in nearly all jurisdictions. In North America, 90% of adults consume caffeine daily.[7]
Psychoactive drugs are divided into 3 groups:[1]
- depressants Depressants are psychoactive drugs which temporarily diminish the function or activity of a specific part of the body or mind. Examples of these kinds of effects may include anxiolysis, sedation, and hypotension. Due to their effects typically having a "down" quality to them, depressants are also occasionally referred to as "downers& - those that slow down the central nervous system; such as tranquillisers, alcohol, petrol, heroin and other opiates, cannabis (in low doses)
- stimulants Stimulants produce a variety of different kinds of effects by enhancing the activity of the central and peripheral nervous systems. Common effects, which vary depending on the substance in question, may include enhanced alertness, awareness, wakefulness, endurance, productivity, and motivation, increased arousal, locomotion, heart rate, and blood- those that excite the nervous system; such as nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine, caffeine
- hallucinogens The general group of pharmacological agents commonly known as hallucinogens can be divided into three broad categories: psychedelics, dissociatives, and deliriants. These classes of psychoactive drugs have in common that they can cause subjective changes in perception, thought, emotion and consciousness. Unlike other psychoactive drugs, such as - those that alter how reality is perceived; such as LSD, mescaline, "magic mushrooms"
Anesthesia
Main article: Anesthesia Anesthesia, or anaesthesia , has traditionally meant the condition of having sensation (including the feeling of pain) blocked or temporarily taken away. It is a pharmacologically induced reversible state of amnesia, analgesia, loss of responsiveness, loss of skeletal muscle reflexes and/or decreased stress response. This allows patients toGeneral anesthetics A general anaesthetic is a drug that brings about a reversible loss of consciousness. These drugs are generally administered by an anaesthesia provider in order to induce or maintain general anaesthesia to facilitate surgery. The biological mechanism(s) of action of general anesthetics are not well understood are a class of psychoactive drug used on patients to block pain and other sensations. Most anesthetics induce unconsciousness, which allows patients to undergo medical procedures like surgery Surgery is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on a patient to investigate and/or treat a pathological condition such as disease or injury, to help improve bodily function or appearance, and sometimes for religious reasons. An act of performing surgery may be called a surgical procedure, operation, or simply without physical pain or emotional trauma.[8] To induce unconsciousness, anesthetics affect the GABA γ-Aminobutyric acid (pronounced /ˈɡæmə əˈmiːnoʊbjuːˈtɪrɨk ˈæsɨd/, or the acronym pronounced /'gæbə/) is the chief inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mammalian central nervous system. It plays a role in regulating neuronal excitability throughout the nervous system. In humans, GABA is also directly responsible for the regulation and NMDA NMDA is an amino acid derivative acting as a specific agonist at the NMDA receptor, and therefore mimics the action of the neurotransmitter glutamate on that receptor. In contrast to glutamate, NMDA binds to and regulates the NMDA receptor only, with no effect on other glutamate receptors systems. For example, halothane Halothane vapour is an inhalational general anaesthetic. Its IUPAC name is 2-bromo-2-chloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane. It is the only inhalational anaesthetic agent containing a bromine atom; there are several other halogenated anesthesia agents which lack the bromine atom and do contain the fluorine and chlorine atoms present in halothane. It is is a GABA agonist,[9] and ketamine Ketamine is a drug used in human and veterinary medicine developed by Parke-Davis in 1962. Its hydrochloride salt is sold as Ketanest, Ketaset, and Ketalar. Pharmacologically, ketamine is classified as an NMDA receptor antagonist. At high, fully anesthetic level doses, ketamine has also been found to bind to opioid μ receptors and sigma receptors is an NMDA receptor antagonist.[10]
Pain control
Main article: Analgesics An analgesic is any member of the group of drugs used to relieve pain (achieve analgesia). The word analgesic derives from Greek an- ("without") and algos ("pain"). Analgesic drugs act in various ways on the peripheral and central nervous systems; they include paracetamol (para-acetylaminophenol, also known in the US asPsychoactive drugs are often prescribed to manage pain Pain management is that branch of medicine employing an interdisciplinary approach to easing the suffering and improving the quality of life of those living with pain. The typical pain management team includes medical practitioners, clinical psychologists, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, and nurse practitioners. Pain sometimes resolves. As the subjective experience of pain is regulated by endogenous Endogenous substances are those that originate from within an organism, tissue, or cell . Endogenous retroviruses are caused by ancient infections of germ cells in humans, mammals and other vertebrates. Their proviruses remain in the genome and are passed on to the next generation opioid peptides An opioid is a chemical that works by binding to opioid receptors, which are found principally in the central nervous system and the gastrointestinal tract. The receptors in these organ systems mediate both the beneficial effects and the side effects of opioids, pain can be managed using psychoactives that operate on this neurotransmitter system as opioid receptor agonists Opioid Agonist Treatment, or OAT, refers to the treatment of a narcotics addiction in humans via the administration of similar opioid drugs, agonists, and the resultant cross tolerance and physical dependence. Methadone and Buprenorphine are the most common drugs used in agonist treatment. Only facilities accredited by CSAT are able to provide. This class of drugs can be highly addictive, and includes opiate In medicine, the term opiate describes any of the narcotic opioid alkaloids found as natural products in the opium poppy plant, as well as many semisynthetic chemical derivatives of such alkaloids narcotics The term narcotic originally referred medically to any psychoactive compound with sleep-inducing properties. It has since become associated with opioids, commonly morphine and heroin. The term is, today, imprecisely defined and typically has negative connotations. In a legal context, a narcotic drug is simply one that is totally prohibited, or one, like morphine Morphine (pronounced /ˈmɔrfiːn/) (MS Contin, MSIR, Avinza, Kadian, Oramorph, Roxanol, Kapanol) is a potent opiate analgesic medication and is considered to be the prototypical opioid and codeine Codeine or 3-methylmorphine (a natural isomer of methylated morphine, the other being the semi-synthetic 6-methylmorphine) is an opiate used for its analgesic, antitussive, and antidiarrheal properties.[11] NSAIDs Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, usually abbreviated to NSAIDs or NAIDs, are drugs with analgesic and antipyretic effects and which have, in higher doses, anti-inflammatory effects (reducing inflammation). The term "nonsteroidal" is used to distinguish these drugs from steroids, which (among a broad range of other effects) have a, such as aspirin Aspirin , also known as acetylsalicylic acid (pronounced /əˌsɛtəlˌsælɨˈsɪlɨk/ ə-SET-əl-sal-i-SIL-ik, abbreviated ASA), is a salicylate drug, often used as an analgesic to relieve minor aches and pains, as an antipyretic to reduce fever, and as an anti-inflammatory medication and ibuprofen US FDA:link, are a second class of analgesics. They reduce eicosanoid In biochemistry, eicosanoids are signaling molecules made by oxidation of twenty-carbon essential fatty acids, . They exert complex control over many bodily systems, mainly in inflammation or immunity, and as messengers in the central nervous system. The networks of controls that depend upon eicosanoids are among the most complex in the human body-mediated inflammation Inflammation is part of the complex biological response of vascular tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. Inflammation is a protective attempt by the organism to remove the injurious stimuli and to initiate the healing process. Inflammation is not a synonym for infection. Even in cases where inflammation is by inhibiting the enzyme cyclooxygenase Cyclooxygenase is an enzyme (EC 1.14.99.1) that is responsible for formation of important biological mediators called prostanoids, including prostaglandins, prostacyclin and thromboxane. Pharmacological inhibition of COX can provide relief from the symptoms of inflammation and pain. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, such as aspirin and.
Psychiatric medication
Main article: Psychiatric medications A psychiatric medication is a licenced psychoactive drug taken to exert an effect on the mental state and used to treat mental disorders. Usually prescribed in psychiatric settings, these medications are typically made of synthetic chemical compounds, although some are naturally occurring[citation needed] Zoloft (sertraline Sertraline hydrochloride is an antidepressant of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) class. It was introduced to the market by Pfizer in 1991. Sertraline is primarily used to treat major depression in adult outpatients as well as obsessive–compulsive, panic, and social anxiety disorders in both adults and children. In 2007, it was), an antidepressant An antidepressant is a psychiatric medication used to alleviate mood disorders, such as major depression and dysthymia and anxiety disorders such as social anxiety disorder. Drugs including the monoamine oxidase inhibitors , tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), tetracyclic antidepressants (TeCAs), selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), andPsychiatric medications are prescribed for the management of mental and emotional disorders. There are 6 major classes of psychiatric medications:
- Antidepressants, which are used to treat disparate disorders such as clinical depression, dysthymia, anxiety, eating disorders and borderline personality disorder.[12]
- Stimulants, which are used to treat disorders such as attention deficit disorder and narcolepsy and to suppress the appetite.
- Antipsychotics, which are used to treat psychoses, schizophrenia and mania.
- Mood stabilizers, which are used to treat bipolar disorder and schizoaffective disorder.
- Anxiolytics, which are used to treat anxiety disorders.
- Depressants, which are used as hypnotics, sedatives, and anesthetics.
Recreational use
Main article: Recreational drug useMany psychoactive substances are used for their mood and perception altering effects, including those with accepted uses in medicine and psychiatry. Examples include caffeine, alcohol, cocaine, LSD, and cannabis.[13] Classes of drugs frequently used recreationally include:
- Stimulants, which activate the central nervous system. These are used recreationally for their euphoric effects.
- Hallucinogens (psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants), which induce perceptual and cognitive distortions.
- Hypnotics, which depress the central nervous system. These are used recreationally because of their euphoric effects.
- Opioid Analgesics, which also depress the central nervous system. These are used recreationally because of their euphoric effects.
- Inhalants, in the forms of gas aerosols, or solvents, which are inhaled as a vapor because of their stupefying effects. Many inhalants also fall into the above categories (such as nitrous oxide which is also an analgesic).
In some modern and ancient cultures, drug usage is seen as a status symbol. Recreational drugs are seen as status symbols in settings such as at nightclubs and parties.[14] For example, in ancient Egypt, gods were commonly pictured holding hallucinogenic plants.[15]
Because there is controversy about regulation of recreational drugs, there is an ongoing debate about drug prohibition. Critics of prohibition believe that regulation of recreational drug use is a violation of personal autonomy and freedom.[16] In the United States, critics have noted that prohibition or regulation of recreational and spiritual drug use might be unconstitutional.[17]
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Wed, 18 Aug 2010 19:06:11 GMT+00:00
Mormon Times "Caffeine has been described as the most widely used psychoactive drug in the world," Crouch said. "It's a stimulant and it also is a diuretic, ...
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ue, 31 Aug 2010 12:00:00 GM
They try to maintain their ordinary way of perceiving and thinking against the drug effects. There is a large psychological literature on the way in which personality factors affect reactions to a wide variety of . psychoactive drugs. ...
Q. I'm doing a study and I need to know what the two most commonly abused psychoactive drugs abused among teenagers. I don't totally trust websites because they might have gotten their information wrong. Still, when you give me your answer I'd prefer to know what website you got it from if you got it from a website at all.
Asked by Kiyoko3112 - Sun Nov 23 13:46:17 2008 - - 1 Answers - 0 Comments
A. One hundred percent sure. Alcohol and Marijuana. A psychoactive is defined as a chemical substance that exerts psychological effects including changes in mood, cognition, and behavior. Alcohol and Marijuana are the cheapest and easiest to find, therefor the most abused.
Answered by jake k - Mon Nov 24 23:03:01 2008
